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It is therefore necessary to understand: How high-level languages are represented in machine language The operation of compilers, linkers, loaders and debuggers What ISA features support the needs of high-level languages What ISA features support the needs of the operating system\ "  " ( " *x9(Overview of Compiler( Source program Machine code Example: INPUT PROGRAM: int foo( ) { int x=0; return (x + x) ; } !cP0 c>F4:)#Output Assembly Code (unoptimized)($P( foo: sub $sp, $sp, 8 % Push stack frame sw $fp, 8($sp) % Save old frame pointer add $fp, $sp, 8 % Set new frame pointer sw $ra, -4($fp) % Save return address add $t0, $a0 $a0 % Addition move $v0, $t0 % Copy return value lw $ra, -4(%fp) % Restore return address lw $fp, 0($fp) % Restore frame pointer add $sp, $sp, 8 % Pop stack frame jr $ra % Jump to return address ,P&)"c%G;* Hfoo: add $v0, $a0, $a0 % Set result jr $ra % Jump to return address"IPD6"<+Tree of Function ActivationsP(Starting from the top (e.g., main () in C/C++), the history of function calls forms a tree A path following the sequence function calls and returns forms a  depth-first traversal of the tree At any point in time, the only function calls whose variables need to be stored are the direct ancestors of the function call currently being executed.f[ " x " (e " x " ( " xZ!Example: Recursive Function Calls"P"( Calling a Leaf Function(@ To call a function which never calls another and doesn t require much memory: Caller: put arguments to the function in $a0-$a3 If anything important in $t0-9, move them now! jal to the function Function: do your job (use $t0-$t9 if needed) Jr to $ra Caller: continue where you left off O " n " (t " x8 -x$ " x " nP[8%>?&  Stack Frames (If a function needs more memory and/or may call others, it uses a stack frame, which holds: Automatic variables (non-static variables declared within function) Arguments to the function (just another type of local variable) The  return address (since $ra overwritten by call) Saved registers from caller ($s0-$s7) if you need to use them  Spill registers, including $t0-$t9 when calling othersH\x(0 " x]07'Illustration of Stack Frames(P(  $Calling a Non-Leaf Function (Caller)&%$(Put arguments to the function in $a0-$a3 Save contents of $t0-9 if they will be needed later If more than 4 args, push them onto stack jal (or jral) to beginning of the function code0 " 0 " >l$ $Calling a Non-Leaf Function (Callee)&%$(Push current fp onto stack Move fp to top of frame (just below old sp) Set sp to (fp  frame size) Frame size is the same for every call of the same function Known at compile-time Use displacement addressing to get at local variables Save $s0-$s7 (whichever you need to reuse) and $ra in frame Save $a0-$a3 to frame if needed (e.g., calling another function) c " xQ -x6 -x} -x " xHQ6}P 0L)Returning from Non-Leaf Function (Callee)*P*("Put return values (if any) in $v0 and $v1 Restore $s0-$s7 (whichever were saved) and $ra from frame Restore sp to just above current fp Restore old fp from stack frame Jump to $ra (jr) Caller can get return args in $v0 and $v1, if any> " x2 " xtV-  Other Storage: Global Variables P (In C/C++,  global variables are Variables declared outside of any functions Static variables (inside or outside a function) Static data members of a class (C++) Properties: Only one copy of each (unlike automatic variables) Initialization allowed (set value before main () starts) All in one region of memory, accessed through $gp (r28) ! " x -x -(  " x -x " x!  J %Other Storage: Dynamic Storage (Heap)(&P%(In C/C++, the  heap contains Blocks of memory allocated by malloc () etc. Objects created using the new keyword (C++) Properties: Stored in a big chunk of memory between globals and stack Controlled by the programming language s library (e.g., libc) Can be grown if needed No dedicated reg. 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HDA "B " HDA "@@B # HDA "B $ HDA "B % HDA "B & HDA "@@B ' HDA " B ( HDA " B ) HDA " B * HDA "@ @ B + HDA " B , HDA " B - HDA " B . HDA "@@B / HDA "B 0 HDA "B 1 HDA "B 2 HDA "@@B 3 HDA "B 4 HDA "B 5 HDA "B 6 HDA "@@B 7 HDA "B 8 HDA "tB 9 6D"$\ /c3  : "/c3 B ; 6D"/3 ,$D  0tB < 6D" tB = 6D"c2 >B  ZBCENGGHʲI[TQ zR(VzR(V[T`TzR(V[T`T"]Ft\  ? "tB @ 6D"r r tB AB 6D"442 B  ZBCENGGHʲI[TQ zR(VzR(V[T`TzR(V[T`T"   C 6| "Pp  | T Click to edit Master title style! ! D l| Rectangle: Click to edit Master text styles Second level Third level Fourth level Fifth level"%p0u  | W#Click to edit Master subtitle style$ $ E 6| "`` | \*  F 6H| "`  | ^*  G 6А| "`  | ^* H  0޽h ?/ >B @Eff؂o  0 `$(  $ $ 0$  P   &  T*   $ 0l$     &  V*  d $ c $ ?  &  $ 0$$   @ &  RClick to edit Master text styles Second level Third level Fourth level Fifth level!     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